Tag: Python DevOps

Python DevOps – Deliver innovation faster with simple, reliable tools for Continuous Integration / Continuous Delivery (CI/CD) for Agile teams to share code, track work, and ship software.

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Python for DevOps: Learn Ruthlessly Effective Automation – ‎ 978-1492057697

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B07VSXS4NK ISBN-13: 978-1593279929

See: Automate the Boring Stuff with Python, 2nd Edition: Practical Programming for Total Beginners 2nd Edition

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B085KB31X3 ISBN-13: 978-1492052203

See: Architecture Patterns with Python: Enabling Test-Driven Development, Domain-Driven Design, and Event-Driven Microservices 1st Edition

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B07S2N8Q48 ISBN-13: 978-1593279660

See: Beyond the Basic Stuff with Python: Best Practices for Writing Clean Code Kindle Edition

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See: Flask Web Development: Developing Web Applications with Python 2nd Edition, Kindle Edition

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B0852P29NJ ISBN-13: ‎ 978-1718500624

See: Real-World Python: A Hacker’s Guide to Solving Problems with Code, by https://learning.oreilly.com/library/publisher/no-starch-press

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B08M6CT2R3 ISBN-13: 978-1839217166

See: Mastering Python for Networking and Security: Leverage the scripts and libraries of Python version 3.7 and beyond to overcome networking and security issues, 2nd Edition Kindle Edition

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B07SR2KMXD

See: DevOps in Python: Infrastructure as Python 1st ed. Edition

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B07MR53BFL ISBN-13: 978-1484242803

See: Python Continuous Integration and Delivery: A Concise Guide with Examples, 1st ed. Edition, Publisher ‏ : ‎ Apress; 1st ed. edition (December 28, 2018)

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B074HXXXLS

See: Test-Driven Development with Python: Obey the Testing Goat: Using Django, Selenium, and JavaScript 2nd Edition

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See: SQLAlchemy: Database Access Using Python (Developer’s Library) 1st Edition

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SQLAlchemy

” (WP)

SQLAlchemy is an open-sourceSQL toolkit and object-relational mapper (ORM) for the Python programming language released under the MIT License.[5]

Original author(s)Michael Bayer[1][2]
Initial releaseFebruary 14, 2006; 15 years ago[3]
Stable release1.4.15 / May 11, 2021; 2 months ago[4]
Repositorygithub.com/sqlalchemy/sqlalchemy
Written inPython
Operating systemCross-platform
TypeObject-relational mapping
LicenseMIT License[5]
Websitewww.sqlalchemy.org 

Description

SQLAlchemy’s philosophy is that relational databases behave less like object collections as the scale gets larger and performance starts being a concern, while object collections behave less like tables and rows as more abstraction is designed into them. For this reason it has adopted the data mapper pattern (similar to Hibernate for Java) rather than the active record pattern used by a number of other object-relational mappers.[6] However, optional plugins allow users to develop using declarative syntax.[7]

History

SQLAlchemy was first released in February 2006[8][3] and has quickly become one of the most widely used object-relational mapping tools in the Python community, alongside Django‘s ORM.

Example

This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (November 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

The following example represents an n-to-1 relationship between movies and their directors. It is shown how user-defined Python classes create corresponding database tables, how instances with relationships are created from either side of the relationship, and finally how the data can be queried—illustrating automatically generated SQL queries for both lazy and eager loading.

Schema definition

Creating two Python classes and according database tables in the DBMS:

from sqlalchemy import *
from sqlalchemy.ext.declarative import declarative_base
from sqlalchemy.orm import relation, sessionmaker

Base = declarative_base()

class Movie(Base):
    __tablename__ = "movies"

    id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)
    title = Column(String(255), nullable=False)
    year = Column(Integer)
    directed_by = Column(Integer, ForeignKey("directors.id"))

    director = relation("Director", backref="movies", lazy=False)

    def __init__(self, title=None, year=None):
        self.title = title
        self.year = year

    def __repr__(self):
        return "Movie(%r, %r, %r)" % (self.title, self.year, self.director)

class Director(Base):
    __tablename__ = "directors"

    id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)
    name = Column(String(50), nullable=False, unique=True)

    def __init__(self, name=None):
        self.name = name

    def __repr__(self):
        return "Director(%r)" % (self.name)

engine = create_engine("dbms://user:pwd@host/dbname")
Base.metadata.create_all(engine)

Data insertion

One can insert a director-movie relationship via either entity:

Session = sessionmaker(bind=engine)
session = Session()

m1 = Movie("Robocop", 1987)
m1.director = Director("Paul Verhoeven")

d2 = Director("George Lucas")
d2.movies = [Movie("Star Wars", 1977), Movie("THX 1138", 1971)]

try:
    session.add(m1)
    session.add(d2)
    session.commit()
except:
    session.rollback()

Querying

alldata = session.query(Movie).all()
for somedata in alldata:
    print(somedata)

SQLAlchemy issues the following query to the DBMS (omitting aliases):

SELECT movies.id, movies.title, movies.year, movies.directed_by, directors.id, directors.name
FROM movies LEFT OUTER JOIN directors ON directors.id = movies.directed_by

The output:

Movie('Robocop', 1987L, Director('Paul Verhoeven'))
Movie('Star Wars', 1977L, Director('George Lucas'))
Movie('THX 1138', 1971L, Director('George Lucas'))

Setting lazy=True (default) instead, SQLAlchemy would first issue a query to get the list of movies and only when needed (lazy) for each director a query to get the name of the according director:

SELECT movies.id, movies.title, movies.year, movies.directed_by
FROM movies

SELECT directors.id, directors.name
FROM directors
WHERE directors.id = %s

See also

References

  1. ^ Mike Bayer is the creator of SQLAlchemy and Mako Templates for Python.
  2. ^ Interview Mike Bayer SQLAlchemy #pydata #python
  3. ^ a b “Download – SQLAlchemy”. SQLAlchemy. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
  4. ^ “Releases – sqlalchemy/sqlalchemy”. Retrieved 17 May 2021 – via GitHub.
  5. ^ a b “zzzeek / sqlalchemy / source / LICENSE”. BitBucket. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
  6. ^ in The architecture of open source applications
  7. ^ Declarative
  8. ^ http://decisionstats.com/2015/12/29/interview-mike-bayer-sqlalchemy-pydata-python/

Notes

External links

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DevOps toolchain

See also: CloudOps, toolchain

“A DevOps toolchain is a set or combination of tools that aid in the delivery, development, and management of software applications throughout the systems development life cycle, as coordinated by an organization that uses DevOps practices.

Generally, DevOps tools fit into one or more activities, which supports specific DevOps initiatives: Plan, Create, Verify, Package, Release, Configure, Monitor, and Version Control.[1][2]” (WP)

Toolchains

“In software, a toolchain is the set of programming tools that is used to perform a complex software development task or to create a software product, which is typically another computer program or a set of related programs. In general, the tools forming a toolchain are executed consecutively so the output or resulting environment state of each tool becomes the input or starting environment for the next one, but the term is also used when referring to a set of related tools that are not necessarily executed consecutively.[3][4][5]

As DevOps is a set of practices that emphasizes the collaboration and communication of both software developers and other information technology (IT) professionals, while automating the process of software delivery and infrastructure changes, its implementation can include the definition of the series of tools used at various stages of the lifecycle; because DevOps is a cultural shift and collaboration between development and operations, there is no one product that can be considered a single DevOps tool. Instead a collection of tools, potentially from a variety of vendors, are used in one or more stages of the lifecycle.[6][7]” (WP)

Stages of DevOps

Further information: DevOps

Plan

Plan is composed of two things: “define” and “plan”.[8] This activity refers to the business value and application requirements. Specifically “Plan” activities include:

  • Production metrics, objects and feedback
  • Requirements
  • Business metrics
  • Update release metrics
  • Release plan, timing and business case
  • Security policy and requirement

A combination of the IT personnel will be involved in these activities: business application owners, software development, software architects, continual release management, security officers and the organization responsible for managing the production of IT infrastructure.

Create

Create is composed of the building (see also build automation), coding, and configuring of the software development process.[8] The specific activities are:

Tools and vendors in this category often overlap with other categories. Because DevOps is about breaking down silos, this is reflective in the activities and product solutions.[clarification needed]

Verify

Verify is directly associated with ensuring the quality of the software release; activities designed to ensure code quality is maintained and the highest quality is deployed to production.[8] The main activities in this are:

Solutions for verify related activities generally fall under four main categories: Test automation , Static analysis , Test Lab, and Security.

Packaging

Packaging refers to the activities involved once the release is ready for deployment, often also referred to as staging or Preproduction / “preprod”.[8] This often includes tasks and activities such as:

  • Approval/preapprovals
  • Package configuration
  • Triggered releases
  • Release staging and holding

Release

Release related activities include schedule, orchestration, provisioning and deploying software into production and targeted environment.[9] The specific Release activities include:

  • Release coordination
  • Deploying and promoting applications
  • Fallbacks and recovery
  • Scheduled/timed releases

Solutions that cover this aspect of the toolchain include application release automation, deployment automation and release management.

Configure

Configure activities fall under the operation side of DevOps. Once software is deployed, there may be additional IT infrastructure provisioning and configuration activities required.[8] Specific activities including:

  • Infrastructure storage, database and network provisioning and configuring
  • Application provision and configuration.

The main types of solutions that facilitate these activities are continuous configuration automation, configuration management, and infrastructure as code tools.[10]

Monitor

Monitoring is an important link in a DevOps toolchain. It allows IT organization to identify specific issues of specific releases and to understand the impact on end-users.[8] A summary of Monitor related activities are:

  • Performance of IT infrastructure
  • End-user response and experience
  • Production metrics and statistics

Information from monitoring activities often impacts Plan activities required for changes and for new release cycles.

Version Control

Version Control is an important link in a DevOps toolchain and a component of software configuration management. Version Control is the management of changes to documents, computer programs, large web sites, and other collections of information.[8] A summary of Version Control related activities are:

  • Non-linear development
  • Distributed development
  • Compatibility with existent systems and protocols
  • Toolkit-based design

Information from Version Control often supports Release activities required for changes and for new release cycles.

See also

References

  1. ^ Edwards, Damon. “Integrating DevOps tools into a Service Delivery Platform”. dev2ops.org.
  2. ^ Seroter, Richard. “Exploring the ENTIRE DevOps Toolchain for (Cloud) Teams”. infoq.com.
  3. ^ “Toolchain Overview”. nongnu.org. 2012-01-03. Retrieved 2013-10-21.
  4. ^ “Toolchains”. elinux.org. 2013-09-08. Retrieved 2013-10-21.
  5. ^ Imran, Saed; Buchheit, Martin; Hollunder, Bernhard; Schreier, Ulf (2015-10-29). Tool Chains in Agile ALM Environments: A Short Introduction. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. 9416. pp. 371–380. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-26138-6_40. ISBN 978-3-319-26137-9.
  6. ^ Loukides, Mike (2012-06-07). “What is DevOps?”.
  7. ^ Garner Market Trends: DevOps – Not a Market, but Tool-Centric Philosophy That supports a Continuous Delivery Value Chain (Report). Gartner. 18 February 2015.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g Avoid Failure by Developing a Toolchain that Enables DevOps (Report). Gartner. 16 March 2016.
  9. ^ Best Practices in Change, Configuration and Release Management (Report). Gartner. 14 July 2010.
  10. ^ Roger S. Pressman (2009). Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach (7th International ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

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Python Bibliography

See also: Python and Bibliography of Python Libraries and Web Frameworks, Python Programming Courses

  1. Python Software Foundation Documentation (PSFDoc)
  2. GitHub (GH)
  3. Wikipedia (WP)
  4. 100 Days of Code – The Complete Python Pro Bootcamp, by Dr. Angela Yu (100PyAYu)
  5. The Python 3 Standard Library by Example, by Doug Hellmann, B072QZZDV7 (P3SLbE)
  6. Python Pocket Reference: Python In Your Pocket, by Mark Lutz, B00HZ41PGC (PPR)
  7. Head First Python: A Brain-Friendly Guide, by Paul Barry, B01N0GU0OC (HFPy)
  8. The Well-Grounded Python Developer, by Doug Farrell, 2021, 1617297441 (WlGrPD)
  9. Learning Python: Powerful Object-Oriented Programming, by Mark Lutz, B00DDZPC9S (LPMkLz)
  10. Programming Python: Powerful Object-Oriented Programming, by Mark Lutz, B004GTLFJ6 (PPMkLz)
  11. Python Crash Course: A Hands-On, Project-Based Introduction to Programming, by Eric Matthes, B07J4521M3 (PyCrCs)
  12. Introducing Python: Modern Computing in Simple Packages, by Bill Lubanovic, 2020, B0815R5543 (IPyBLub)
  13. Practices of the Python Pro, by Dane Hillard, 2020, 1617296082 (PrPyPro)
  14. Think Python: How to Think Like a Computer Scientist, by Allen B. Downey, B018UXJ9EQ (ThnkPy)
  15. Python in a Nutshell: A Desktop Quick Reference, 3rd Edition, by Alex Martelli, Anna Ravenscroft, and Steve Holden, 2017, B06Y4DVSBM (PyNutSh)
  16. The Quick Python Book, by N. Ceder, 1617294039 (QPB)

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The Python 3 Standard Library by Example

See also: Python Bibliography and Python

The Python 3 Standard Library by Example, by Doug Hellmann, B072QZZDV7 (P3SLbE)

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About This Book:

Master the Powerful Python 3 Standard Library through Real Code Examples 

“The genius of Doug’s approach is that with 15 minutes per week, any motivated programmer can learn the Python Standard Library. Doug’s guided tour will help you flip the switch to fully power-up Python’s batteries.”

–Raymond Hettinger, Distinguished Python Core Developer

 The Python 3 Standard Library contains hundreds of modules for interacting with the operating system, interpreter, and Internet–all extensively tested and ready to jump-start application development. Now, Python expert Doug Hellmann introduces every major area of the Python 3.x library through concise source code and output examples. Hellmann’s examples fully demonstrate each feature and are designed for easy learning and reuse.

You’ll find practical code for working with text, data structures, algorithms, dates/times, math, the file system, persistence, data exchange, compression, archiving, crypto, processes/threads, networking, Internet capabilities, email, developer and language tools, the runtime, packages, and more. Each section fully covers one module, with links to additional resources, making this book an ideal tutorial and reference.

The Python 3 Standard Library by Example introduces Python 3.x’s new libraries, significant functionality changes, and new layout and naming conventions. Hellmann also provides expert porting guidance for moving code from 2.x Python standard library modules to their Python 3.x equivalents.

  • Manipulate text with string, textwrap, re (regular expressions), and difflib
  • Use data structures: enum, collections, array, heapq, queue, struct, copy, and more
  • Implement algorithms elegantly and concisely with functools, itertools, and contextlib
  • Handle dates/times and advanced mathematical tasks
  • Archive and data compression
  • Understand data exchange and persistence, including json, dbm, and sqlite
  • Sign and verify messages cryptographically
  • Manage concurrent operations with processes and threads
  • Test, debug, compile, profile, language, import, and package tools
  • Control interaction at runtime with interpreters or the environment

About the Author:

Doug Hellmann is currently employed by Red Hat to work on OpenStack. He is on the OpenStack Technical Committee and contributes to many aspects of the project. He has been programming in Python since version 1.4, and has worked on a variety of UNIX and non-UNIX platforms for projects in fields such as mapping, medical news publishing, banking, and data center automation. Doug is a Fellow of the Python Software Foundation and served as its Communications Director from 2010-2012. After a year as a regular columnist for Python Magazine, he served as Editor-in-Chief from 2008-2009. Between 2007 and 2011, Doug published the popular “Python Module of the Week” series on his blog, and an earlier version of this book (for Python 2), The Python Standard Library By Example (Addison-Wesley, 2011) . He lives in Athens, Georgia. 

Book Details:

  • ASIN: B072QZZDV7
  • ISBN-13: 978-0-13-429105-5
  • ISBN-10: 0-13-429105-0
  • Publisher: Addison-Wesley Professional; 1st edition (June 14, 2017)
  • Publication date: June 14, 2017
  • Print length: 1456 pages

Table of Contents:

Contents at a Glance

Introduction

Acknowledgments

About the Author

Chapter 1 Text

Chapter 2 Data Structures

Chapter 3 Algorithms

Chapter 4 Dates and Times

Chapter 5 Mathematics

Chapter 6 The File System

Chapter 7 Data Persistence and Exchange

Chapter 8 Data Compression and Archiving

Chapter 9 Cryptography

Chapter 10 Concurrency with Processes, Threads, and Coroutines

Chapter 11 Networking

Chapter 12 The Internet

Chapter 13 Email

Chapter 14 Application Building Blocks

Chapter 15 Internationalization and Localization

Chapter 16 Developer Tools

Chapter 17 Runtime Features

Chapter 18 Language Tools

Chapter 19 Modules and Packages

Appendix A Porting Notes

Appendix B Outside of the Standard Library

Index of Python Modules

Index

Details Contents

Contents

Introduction

Acknowledgments

About the Author

Chapter 1 Text

1.1 string: Text Constants and Templates

1.1.1 Functions

1.1.2 Templates

1.1.3 Advanced Templates

1.1.4 Formatter

1.1.5 Constants

1.2 textwrap: Formatting Text Paragraphs

1.2.1 Example Data

1.2.2 Filling Paragraphs

1.2.3 Removing Existing Indentation

1.2.4 Combining Dedent and Fill

1.2.5 Indenting Blocks

1.2.6 Hanging Indents

1.2.7 Truncating Long Text

1.3 re: Regular Expressions

1.3.1 Finding Patterns in Text

1.3.2 Compiling Expressions

1.3.3 Multiple Matches

1.3.4 Pattern Syntax

1.3.5 Constraining the Search

1.3.6 Dissecting Matches with Groups

1.3.7 Search Options

1.3.8 Looking Ahead or Behind

1.3.9 Self-referencing Expressions

1.3.10 Modifying Strings with Patterns

1.3.11 Splitting with Patterns

1.4 difflib: Compare Sequences

1.4.1 Comparing Bodies of Text

1.4.2 Junk Data

1.4.3 Comparing Arbitrary Types

Chapter 2 Data Structures

2.1 enum: Enumeration Type

2.1.1 Creating Enumerations

2.1.2 Iteration

2.1.3 Comparing Enums

2.1.4 Unique Enumeration Values

2.1.5 Creating Enumerations Programmatically

2.1.6 Non-integer Member Values

2.2 collections: Container Data Types

2.2.1 ChainMap: Search Multiple Dictionaries

2.2.2 Counter: Count Hashable Objects

2.2.3 defaultdict: Missing Keys Return a Default Value

2.2.4 deque: Double-Ended Queue

2.2.5 namedtuple: Tuple Subclass with Named Fields

2.2.6 OrderedDict: Remember the Order Keys Are Added to a Dictionary

2.2.7 collections.abc: Abstract Base Classes for Containers

2.3 array: Sequence of Fixed-Type Data

2.3.1 Initialization

2.3.2 Manipulating Arrays

2.3.3 Arrays and Files

2.3.4 Alternative Byte Ordering

2.4 heapq: Heap Sort Algorithm

2.4.1 Example Data

2.4.2 Creating a Heap

2.4.3 Accessing the Contents of a Heap

2.4.4 Data Extremes from a Heap

2.4.5 Efficiently Merging Sorted Sequences

2.5 bisect: Maintain Lists in Sorted Order

2.5.1 Inserting in Sorted Order

2.5.2 Handling Duplicates

2.6 queue: Thread-Safe FIFO Implementation

2.6.1 Basic FIFO Queue

2.6.2 LIFO Queue

2.6.3 Priority Queue

2.6.4 Building a Threaded Podcast Client

2.7 struct: Binary Data Structures

2.7.1 Functions Versus Struct Class

2.7.2 Packing and Unpacking

2.7.3 Endianness

2.7.4 Buffers

2.8 weakref: Impermanent References to Objects

2.8.1 References

2.8.2 Reference Callbacks

2.8.3 Finalizing Objects

2.8.4 Proxies

2.8.5 Caching Objects

2.9 copy: Duplicate Objects

2.9.1 Shallow Copies

2.9.2 Deep Copies

2.9.3 Customizing Copy Behavior

2.9.4 Recursion in Deep Copy

2.10 pprint: Pretty-Print Data Structures

2.10.1 Printing

2.10.2 Formatting

2.10.3 Arbitrary Classes

2.10.4 Recursion

2.10.5 Limiting Nested Output

2.10.6 Controlling Output Width

Chapter 3 Algorithms

3.1 functools: Tools for Manipulating Functions

3.1.1 Decorators

3.1.2 Comparison

3.1.3 Caching

3.1.4 Reducing a Data Set

3.1.5 Generic Functions

3.2 itertools: Iterator Functions

3.2.1 Merging and Splitting Iterators

3.2.2 Converting Inputs

3.2.3 Producing New Values

3.2.4 Filtering

3.2.5 Grouping Data

3.2.6 Combining Inputs

3.3 operator: Functional Interface to Built-in Operators

3.3.1 Logical Operations

3.3.2 Comparison Operators

3.3.3 Arithmetic Operators

3.3.4 Sequence Operators

3.3.5 In-Place Operators

3.3.6 Attribute and Item “Getters”

3.3.7 Combining Operators and Custom Classes

3.4 contextlib: Context Manager Utilities

3.4.1 Context Manager API

3.4.2 Context Managers as Function Decorators

3.4.3 From Generator to Context Manager

3.4.4 Closing Open Handles

3.4.5 Ignoring Exceptions

3.4.6 Redirecting Output Streams

3.4.7 Dynamic Context Manager Stacks

Chapter 4 Dates and Times

4.1 time: Clock Time

4.1.1 Comparing Clocks

4.1.2 Wall Clock Time

4.1.3 Monotonic Clocks

4.1.4 Processor Clock Time

4.1.5 Performance Counter

4.1.6 Time Components

4.1.7 Working with Time Zones

4.1.8 Parsing and Formatting Times

4.2 datetime: Date and Time Value Manipulation

4.2.1 Times

4.2.2 Dates

4.2.3 timedeltas

4.2.4 Date Arithmetic

4.2.5 Comparing Values

4.2.6 Combining Dates and Times

4.2.7 Formatting and Parsing

4.2.8 Time Zones

4.3 calendar: Work with Dates

4.3.1 Formatting Examples

4.3.2 Locales

4.3.3 Calculating Dates

Chapter 5 Mathematics

5.1 decimal: Fixed- and Floating-Point Math

5.1.1 Decimal

5.1.2 Formatting

5.1.3 Arithmetic

5.1.4 Special Values

5.1.5 Context

5.2 fractions: Rational Numbers

5.2.1 Creating Fraction Instances

5.2.2 Arithmetic

5.2.3 Approximating Values

5.3 random: Pseudorandom Number Generators

5.3.1 Generating Random Numbers

5.3.2 Seeding

5.3.3 Saving State

5.3.4 Random Integers

5.3.5 Picking Random Items

5.3.6 Permutations

5.3.7 Sampling

5.3.8 Multiple Simultaneous Generators

5.3.9 SystemRandom

5.3.10 Non-uniform Distributions

5.4 math: Mathematical Functions

5.4.1 Special Constants

5.4.2 Testing for Exceptional Values

5.4.3 Comparing

5.4.4 Converting Floating-Point Values to Integers

5.4.5 Alternative Representations of Floating-Point Values

5.4.6 Positive and Negative Signs

5.4.7 Commonly Used Calculations

5.4.8 Exponents and Logarithms

5.4.9 Angles

5.4.10 Trigonometry

5.4.11 Hyperbolic Functions

5.4.12 Special Functions

5.5 statistics: Statistical Calculations

5.5.1 Averages

5.5.2 Variance

Chapter 6 The File System

6.1 os.path: Platform-Independent Manipulation of Filenames

6.1.1 Parsing Paths

6.1.2 Building Paths

6.1.3 Normalizing Paths

6.1.4 File Times

6.1.5 Testing Files

6.2 pathlib: File System Paths as Objects

6.2.1 Path Representations

6.2.2 Building Paths

6.2.3 Parsing Paths

6.2.4 Creating Concrete Paths

6.2.5 Directory Contents

6.2.6 Reading and Writing Files

6.2.7 Manipulating Directories and Symbolic Links

6.2.8 File Types

6.2.9 File Properties

6.2.10 Permissions

6.2.11 Deleting

6.3 glob: Filename Pattern Matching

6.3.1 Example Data

6.3.2 Wildcards

6.3.3 Single-Character Wildcard

6.3.4 Character Ranges

6.3.5 Escaping Meta-characters

6.4 fnmatch: Unix-Style Glob Pattern Matching

6.4.1 Simple Matching

6.4.2 Filtering

6.4.3 Translating Patterns

6.5 linecache: Read Text Files Efficiently

6.5.1 Test Data

6.5.2 Reading Specific Lines

6.5.3 Handling Blank Lines

6.5.4 Error Handling

6.5.5 Reading Python Source Files

6.6 tempfile: Temporary File System Objects

6.6.1 Temporary Files

6.6.2 Named Files

6.6.3 Spooled Files

6.6.4 Temporary Directories

6.6.5 Predicting Names

6.6.6 Temporary File Location

6.7 shutil: High-Level File Operations

6.7.1 Copying Files

6.7.2 Copying File Metadata

6.7.3 Working with Directory Trees

6.7.4 Finding Files

6.7.5 Archives

6.7.6 File System Space

6.8 filecmp: Compare Files

6.8.1 Example Data

6.8.2 Comparing Files

6.8.3 Comparing Directories

6.8.4 Using Differences in a Program

6.9 mmap: Memory-Map Files

6.9.1 Reading

6.9.2 Writing

6.9.3 Regular Expressions

6.10 codecs: String Encoding and Decoding

6.10.1 Unicode Primer

6.10.2 Working with Files

6.10.3 Byte Order

6.10.4 Error Handling

6.10.5 Encoding Translation

6.10.6 Non-Unicode Encodings

6.10.7 Incremental Encoding

6.10.8 Unicode Data and Network Communication

6.10.9 Defining a Custom Encoding

6.11 io: Text, Binary, and Raw Stream I/O Tools

6.11.1 In-Memory Streams

6.11.2 Wrapping Byte Streams for Text Data

Chapter 7 Data Persistence and Exchange

7.1 pickle: Object Serialization

7.1.1 Encoding and Decoding Data in Strings

7.1.2 Working with Streams

7.1.3 Problems Reconstructing Objects

7.1.4 Unpicklable Objects

7.1.5 Circular References

7.2 shelve: Persistent Storage of Objects

7.2.1 Creating a New Shelf

7.2.2 Writeback

7.2.3 Specific Shelf Types

7.3 dbm: Unix Key–Value Databases

7.3.1 Database Types

7.3.2 Creating a New Database

7.3.3 Opening an Existing Database

7.3.4 Error Cases

7.4 sqlite3: Embedded Relational Database

7.4.1 Creating a Database

7.4.2 Retrieving Data

7.4.3 Query Metadata

7.4.4 Row Objects

7.4.5 Using Variables with Queries

7.4.6 Bulk Loading

7.4.7 Defining New Column Types

7.4.8 Determining Types for Columns

7.4.9 Transactions

7.4.10 Isolation Levels

7.4.11 In-Memory Databases

7.4.12 Exporting the Contents of a Database

7.4.13 Using Python Functions in SQL

7.4.14 Querying with Regular Expressions

7.4.15 Custom Aggregation

7.4.16 Threading and Connection Sharing

7.4.17 Restricting Access to Data

7.5 xml.etree.ElementTree: XML Manipulation API

7.5.1 Parsing an XML Document

7.5.2 Traversing the Parsed Tree

7.5.3 Finding Nodes in a Document

7.5.4 Parsed Node Attributes

7.5.5 Watching Events While Parsing

7.5.6 Creating a Custom Tree Builder

7.5.7 Parsing Strings

7.5.8 Building Documents With Element Nodes

7.5.9 Pretty-Printing XML

7.5.10 Setting Element Properties

7.5.11 Building Trees from Lists of Nodes

7.5.12 Serializing XML to a Stream

7.6 csv: Comma-Separated Value Files

7.6.1 Reading

7.6.2 Writing

7.6.3 Dialects

7.6.4 Using Field Names

Chapter 8 Data Compression and Archiving

8.1 zlib: GNU zlib Compression

8.1.1 Working with Data in Memory

8.1.2 Incremental Compression and Decompression

8.1.3 Mixed Content Streams

8.1.4 Checksums

8.1.5 Compressing Network Data

8.2 gzip: Read and Write GNU zip Files

8.2.1 Writing Compressed Files

8.2.2 Reading Compressed Data

8.2.3 Working with Streams

8.3 bz2: bzip2 Compression

8.3.1 One-Shot Operations in Memory

8.3.2 Incremental Compression and Decompression

8.3.3 Mixed-Content Streams

8.3.4 Writing Compressed Files

8.3.5 Reading Compressed Files

8.3.6 Reading and Writing Unicode Data

8.3.7 Compressing Network Data

8.4 tarfile: Tar Archive Access

8.4.1 Testing Tar Files

8.4.2 Reading Metadata from an Archive

8.4.3 Extracting Files from an Archive

8.4.4 Creating New Archives

8.4.5 Using Alternative Archive Member Names

8.4.6 Writing Data from Sources Other Than Files

8.4.7 Appending to Archives

8.4.8 Working with Compressed Archives

8.5 zipfile: ZIP Archive Access

8.5.1 Testing ZIP Files

8.5.2 Reading Metadata from an Archive

8.5.3 Extracting Archived Files From an Archive

8.5.4 Creating New Archives

8.5.5 Using Alternative Archive Member Names

8.5.6 Writing Data from Sources Other Than Files

8.5.7 Writing with a ZipInfo Instance

8.5.8 Appending to Files

8.5.9 Python ZIP Archives

8.5.10 Limitations

Chapter 9 Cryptography

9.1 hashlib: Cryptographic Hashing

9.1.1 Hash Algorithms

9.1.2 Sample Data

9.1.3 MD5 Example

9.1.4 SHA1 Example

9.1.5 Creating a Hash by Name

9.1.6 Incremental Updates

9.2 hmac: Cryptographic Message Signing and Verification

9.2.1 Signing Messages

9.2.2 Alternative Digest Types

9.2.3 Binary Digests

9.2.4 Applications of Message Signatures

Chapter 10 Concurrency with Processes, Threads, and Coroutines

10.1 subprocess: Spawning Additional Processes

10.1.1 Running External Command

10.1.2 Working with Pipes Directly

10.1.3 Connecting Segments of a Pipe

10.1.4 Interacting with Another Command

10.1.5 Signaling Between Processes

10.2 signal: Asynchronous System Events

10.2.1 Receiving Signals

10.2.2 Retrieving Registered Handlers

10.2.3 Sending Signals

10.2.4 Alarms

10.2.5 Ignoring Signals

10.2.6 Signals and Threads

10.3 threading: Manage Concurrent Operations Within a Process

10.3.1 Thread Objects

10.3.2 Determining the Current Thread

10.3.3 Daemon Versus Non-daemon Threads

10.3.4 Enumerating All Threads

10.3.5 Subclassing Thread

10.3.6 Timer Threads

10.3.7 Signaling Between Threads

10.3.8 Controlling Access to Resources

10.3.9 Synchronizing Threads

10.3.10 Limiting Concurrent Access to Resources

10.3.11 Thread Specific Data

10.4 multiprocessing: Manage Processes Like Threads

10.4.1 multiprocessing Basics

10.4.2 Importable Target Functions

10.4.3 Determining the Current Process

10.4.4 Daemon Processes

10.4.5 Waiting for Processes

10.4.6 Terminating Processes

10.4.7 Process Exit Status

10.4.8 Logging

10.4.9 Subclassing Process

10.4.10 Passing Messages to Processes

10.4.11 Signaling Between Processes

10.4.12 Controlling Access to Resources

10.4.13 Synchronizing Operations

10.4.14 Controlling Concurrent Access to Resources

10.4.15 Managing Shared State

10.4.16 Shared Namespaces

10.4.17 Process Pools

10.4.18 Implementing MapReduce

10.5 asyncio: Asynchronous I/O, Event Loop, and Concurrency Tools

10.5.1 Asynchronous Concurrency Concepts

10.5.2 Cooperative Multitasking with Coroutines

10.5.3 Scheduling Calls to Regular Functions

10.5.4 Producing Results Asynchronously

10.5.5 Executing Tasks Concurrently

10.5.6 Composing Coroutines with Control Structures

10.5.7 Synchronization Primitives

10.5.8 Asynchronous I/O with Protocol Class Abstractions

10.5.9 Asynchronous I/O Using Coroutines and Streams

10.5.10 Using SSL

10.5.11 Interacting with Domain Name Services

10.5.12 Working with Subprocesses

10.5.13 Receiving Unix Signals

10.5.14 Combining Coroutines with Threads and Processes

10.5.15 Debugging with asyncio

10.6 concurrent.futures: Manage Pools of Concurrent Tasks

10.6.1 Using map() with a Basic Thread Pool

10.6.2 Scheduling Individual Tasks

10.6.3 Waiting for Tasks in Any Order

10.6.4 Future Callbacks

10.6.5 Canceling Tasks

10.6.6 Exceptions in Tasks

10.6.7 Context Manager

10.6.8 Process Pools

Chapter 11 Networking

11.1 ipaddress: Internet Addresses

11.1.1 Addresses

11.1.2 Networks

11.1.3 Interfaces

11.2 socket: Network Communication

11.2.1 Addressing, Protocol Families, and Socket Types

11.2.2 TCP/IP Client and Server

11.2.3 User Datagram Client and Server

11.2.4 Unix Domain Sockets

11.2.5 Multicast

11.2.6 Sending Binary Data

11.2.7 Non-blocking Communication and Timeouts

11.3 selectors: I/O Multiplexing Abstractions

11.3.1 Operating Model

11.3.2 Echo Server

11.3.3 Echo Client

11.3.4 Server and Client Together

11.4 select: Wait for I/O Efficiently

11.4.1 Using select()

11.4.2 Non-blocking I/O with Timeouts

11.4.3 Using poll()

11.4.4 Platform-Specific Options

11.5 socketserver: Creating Network Servers

11.5.1 Server Types

11.5.2 Server Objects

11.5.3 Implementing a Server

11.5.4 Request Handlers

11.5.5 Echo Example

11.5.6 Threading and Forking

Chapter 12 The Internet

12.1 urllib.parse: Split URLs into Components

12.1.1 Parsing

12.1.2 Unparsing

12.1.3 Joining

12.1.4 Encoding Query Arguments

12.2 urllib.request: Network Resource Access

12.2.1 HTTP GET

12.2.2 Encoding Arguments

12.2.3 HTTP POST

12.2.4 Adding Outgoing Headers

12.2.5 Posting Form Data from a Request

12.2.6 Uploading Files

12.2.7 Creating Custom Protocol Handlers

12.3 urllib.robotparser: Internet Spider Access Control

12.3.1 robots.txt

12.3.2 Testing Access Permissions

12.3.3 Long-Lived Spiders

12.4 base64: Encode Binary Data with ASCII

12.4.1 Base 64 Encoding

12.4.2 Base64 Decoding

12.4.3 URL-Safe Variations

12.4.4 Other Encodings

12.5 http.server: Base Classes for Implementing Web Servers

12.5.1 HTTP GET

12.5.2 HTTP POST

12.5.3 Threading and Forking

12.5.4 Handling Errors

12.5.5 Setting Headers

12.5.6 Command-Line Use

12.6 http.cookies: HTTP Cookies

12.6.1 Creating and Setting a Cookie

12.6.2 Morsels

12.6.3 Encoded Values

12.6.4 Receiving and Parsing Cookie Headers

12.6.5 Alternative Output Formats

12.7 webbrowser: Displays Web Pages

12.7.1 Simple Example

12.7.2 Windows Versus Tabs

12.7.3 Using a Specific Browser

12.7.4 BROWSER Variable

12.7.5 Command-Line Interface

12.8 uuid: Universally Unique Identifiers

12.8.1 UUID 1: IEEE 802 MAC Address

12.8.2 UUID 3 and 5: Name-Based Values

12.8.3 UUID 4: Random Values

12.8.4 Working with UUID Objects

12.9 json: JavaScript Object Notation

12.9.1 Encoding and Decoding Simple Data Types

12.9.2 Human-Consumable Versus Compact Output

12.9.3 Encoding Dictionaries

12.9.4 Working with Custom Types

12.9.5 Encoder and Decoder Classes

12.9.6 Working with Streams and Files

12.9.7 Mixed Data Streams

12.9.8 JSON at the Command Line

12.10 xmlrpc.client: Client Library for XML-RPC

12.10.1 Connecting to a Server

12.10.2 Data Types

12.10.3 Passing Objects

12.10.4 Binary Data

12.10.5 Exception Handling

12.10.6 Combining Calls into One Message

12.11 xmlrpc.server: An XML-RPC Server

12.11.1 A Simple Server

12.11.2 Alternate API Names

12.11.3 Dotted API Names

12.11.4 Arbitrary API Names

12.11.5 Exposing Methods of Objects

12.11.6 Dispatching Calls

12.11.7 Introspection API

Chapter 13 Email

13.1 smtplib: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Client

13.1.1 Sending an Email Message

13.1.2 Authentication and Encryption

13.1.3 Verifying an Email Address

13.2 smtpd: Sample Mail Servers

13.2.1 Mail Server Base Class

13.2.2 Debugging Server

13.2.3 Proxy Server

13.3 mailbox: Manipulate Email Archives

13.3.1 mbox

13.3.2 Maildir

13.3.3 Message Flags

13.3.4 Other Formats

13.4 imaplib: IMAP4 Client Library

13.4.1 Variations

13.4.2 Connecting to a Server

13.4.3 Example Configuration

13.4.4 Listing Mailboxes

13.4.5 Mailbox Status

13.4.6 Selecting a Mailbox

13.4.7 Searching for Messages

13.4.8 Search Criteria

13.4.9 Fetching Messages

13.4.10 Whole Messages

13.4.11 Uploading Messages

13.4.12 Moving and Copying Messages

13.4.13 Deleting Messages

Chapter 14 Application Building Blocks

14.1 argparse: Command-Line Option and Argument Parsing

14.1.1 Setting Up a Parser

14.1.2 Defining Arguments

14.1.3 Parsing a Command Line

14.1.4 Simple Examples

14.1.5 Help Output

14.1.6 Parser Organization

14.1.7 Advanced Argument Processing

14.2 getopt: Command-Line Option Parsing

14.2.1 Function Arguments

14.2.2 Short-Form Options

14.2.3 Long-Form Options

14.2.4 A Complete Example

14.2.5 Abbreviating Long-Form Options

14.2.6 GNU-Style Option Parsing

14.2.7 Ending Argument Processing

14.3 readline: The GNU readline Library

14.3.1 Configuring readline

14.3.2 Completing Text

14.3.3 Accessing the Completion Buffer

14.3.4 Input History

14.3.5 Hooks

14.4 getpass: Secure Password Prompt

14.4.1 Example

14.4.2 Using getpass Without a Terminal

14.5 cmd: Line-Oriented Command Processors

14.5.1 Processing Commands

14.5.2 Command Arguments

14.5.3 Live Help

14.5.4 Auto-Completion

14.5.5 Overriding Base Class Methods

14.5.6 Configuring Cmd Through Attributes

14.5.7 Running Shell Commands

14.5.8 Alternative Inputs

14.5.9 Commands from sys.argv

14.6 shlex: Parse Shell-Style Syntaxes

14.6.1 Parsing Quoted Strings

14.6.2 Making Safe Strings for Shells

14.6.3 Embedded Comments

14.6.4 Splitting Strings into Tokens

14.6.5 Including Other Sources of Tokens

14.6.6 Controlling the Parser

14.6.7 Error Handling

14.6.8 POSIX Versus Non-POSIX Parsing

14.7 configparser: Work with Configuration Files

14.7.1 Configuration File Format

14.7.2 Reading Configuration Files

14.7.3 Accessing Configuration Settings

14.7.4 Modifying Settings

14.7.5 Saving Configuration Files

14.7.6 Option Search Path

14.7.7 Combining Values with Interpolation

14.8 logging: Report Status, Error, and Informational Messages

14.8.1 Logging Components

14.8.2 Logging in Applications Versus Libraries

14.8.3 Logging to a File

14.8.4 Rotating Log Files

14.8.5 Verbosity Levels

14.8.6 Naming Logger Instances

14.8.7 The Logging Tree

14.8.8 Integration with the warnings Module

14.9 fileinput: Command-Line Filter Framework

14.9.1 Converting M3U Files to RSS

14.9.2 Progress Metadata

14.9.3 In-Place Filtering

14.10 atexit: Program Shutdown Callbacks

14.10.1 Registering Exit Callbacks

14.10.2 Decorator Syntax

14.10.3 Canceling Callbacks

14.10.4 When Are atexit Callbacks Not Called?

14.10.5 Handling Exceptions

14.11 sched: Timed Event Scheduler

14.11.1 Running Events with a Delay

14.11.2 Overlapping Events

14.11.3 Event Priorities

14.11.4 Canceling Events

Chapter 15 Internationalization and Localization

15.1 gettext: Message Catalogs

15.1.1 Translation Workflow Overview

15.1.2 Creating Message Catalogs from Source Code

15.1.3 Finding Message Catalogs at Runtime

15.1.4 Plural Values

15.1.5 Application Versus Module Localization

15.1.6 Switching Translations

15.2 locale: Cultural Localization API

15.2.1 Probing the Current Locale

15.2.2 Currency

15.2.3 Formatting Numbers

15.2.4 Parsing Numbers

15.2.5 Dates and Times

Chapter 16 Developer Tools

16.1 pydoc: Online Help for Modules

16.1.1 Plain Text Help

16.1.2 HTML Help

16.1.3 Interactive Help

16.2 doctest: Testing Through Documentation

16.2.1 Getting Started

16.2.2 Handling Unpredictable Output

16.2.3 Tracebacks

16.2.4 Working Around Whitespace

16.2.5 Test Locations

16.2.6 External Documentation

16.2.7 Running Tests

16.2.8 Test Context

16.3 unittest: Automated Testing Framework

16.3.1 Basic Test Structure

16.3.2 Running Tests

16.3.3 Test Outcomes

16.3.4 Asserting Truth

16.3.5 Testing Equality

16.3.6 Almost Equal?

16.3.7 Containers

16.3.8 Testing for Exceptions

16.3.9 Test Fixtures

16.3.10 Repeating Tests with Different Inputs

16.3.11 Skipping Tests

16.3.12 Ignoring Failing Tests

16.4 trace: Follow Program Flow

16.4.1 Example Program

16.4.2 Tracing Execution

16.4.3 Code Coverage

16.4.4 Calling Relationships

16.4.5 Programming Interface

16.4.6 Saving Result Data

16.4.7 Options

16.5 traceback: Exceptions and Stack Traces

16.5.1 Supporting Functions

16.5.2 Examining the Stack

16.5.3 TracebackException

16.5.4 Low-Level Exception APIs

16.5.5 Low-Level Stack APIs

16.6 cgitb: Detailed Traceback Reports

16.6.1 Standard Traceback Dumps

16.6.2 Enabling Detailed Tracebacks

16.6.3 Local Variables in Tracebacks

16.6.4 Exception Properties

16.6.5 HTML Output

16.6.6 Logging Tracebacks

16.7 pdb: Interactive Debugger

16.7.1 Starting the Debugger

16.7.2 Controlling the Debugger

16.7.3 Breakpoints

16.7.4 Changing Execution Flow

16.7.5 Customizing the Debugger with Aliases

16.7.6 Saving Configuration Settings

16.8 profile and pstats: Performance Analysis

16.8.1 Running the Profiler

16.8.2 Running in a Context

16.8.3 pstats: Saving and Working with Statistics

16.8.4 Limiting Report Contents

16.8.5 Caller/Callee Graphs

16.9 timeit: Time the Execution of Small Bits of Python Code

16.9.1 Module Contents

16.9.2 Basic Example

16.9.3 Storing Values in a Dictionary

16.9.4 From the Command Line

16.10 tabnanny: Indentation Validator

16.10.1 Running from the Command Line

16.11 compileall: Byte-Compile Source Files

16.11.1 Compiling One Directory

16.11.2 Ignoring Files

16.11.3 Compiling sys.path

16.11.4 Compiling Individual Files

16.11.5 From the Command Line

16.12 pyclbr: Class Browser

16.12.1 Scanning for Classes

16.12.2 Scanning for Functions

16.13 venv: Create Virtual Environments

16.13.1 Creating Environments

16.13.2 Contents of a Virtual Environment

16.13.3 Using Virtual Environments

16.14 ensurepip: Install the Python Package Installer

16.14.1 Installing pip

Chapter 17 Runtime Features

17.1 site: Site-wide Configuration

17.1.1 Import Path

17.1.2 User Directories

17.1.3 Path Configuration Files

17.1.4 Customizing Site Configuration

17.1.5 Customizing User Configuration

17.1.6 Disabling the site Module

17.2 sys: System-Specific Configuration

17.2.1 Interpreter Settings

17.2.2 Runtime Environment

17.2.3 Memory Management and Limits

17.2.4 Exception Handling

17.2.5 Low-Level Thread Support

17.2.6 Modules and Imports

17.2.7 Tracing a Program As It Runs

17.3 os: Portable Access to Operating System–Specific Features

17.3.1 Examining the File System Contents

17.3.2 Managing File System Permissions

17.3.3 Creating and Deleting Directories

17.3.4 Working with Symbolic Links

17.3.5 Safely Replacing an Existing File

17.3.6 Detecting and Changing the Process Owner

17.3.7 Managing the Process Environment

17.3.8 Managing the Process Working Directory

17.3.9 Running External Commands

17.3.10 Creating Processes with os.fork()

17.3.11 Waiting for Child Processes

17.3.12 Spawning New Processes

17.3.13 Operating System Error Codes

17.4 platform: System Version Information

17.4.1 Interpreter

17.4.2 Platform

17.4.3 Operating System and Hardware Information

17.4.4 Executable Architecture

17.5 resource: System Resource Management

17.5.1 Current Usage

17.5.2 Resource Limits

17.6 gc: Garbage Collector

17.6.1 Tracing References

17.6.2 Forcing Garbage Collection

17.6.3 Finding References to Objects That Cannot Be Collected

17.6.4 Collection Thresholds and Generations

17.6.5 Debugging

17.7 sysconfig: Interpreter Compile-Time Configuration

17.7.1 Configuration Variables

17.7.2 Installation Paths

17.7.3 Python Version and Platform

Chapter 18 Language Tools

18.1 warnings: Non-fatal Alerts

18.1.1 Categories and Filtering

18.1.2 Generating Warnings

18.1.3 Filtering with Patterns

18.1.4 Repeated Warnings

18.1.5 Alternative Message Delivery Functions

18.1.6 Formatting

18.1.7 Stack Level in Warnings

18.2 abc: Abstract Base Classes

18.2.1 How ABCs Work

18.2.2 Registering a Concrete Class

18.2.3 Implementation Through Subclassing

18.2.4 Helper Base Class

18.2.5 Incomplete Implementations

18.2.6 Concrete Methods in ABCs

18.2.7 Abstract Properties

18.2.8 Abstract Class and Static Methods

18.3 dis: Python Byte-Code Disassembler

18.3.1 Basic Disassembly

18.3.2 Disassembling Functions

18.3.3 Classes

18.3.4 Source Code

18.3.5 Using Disassembly to Debug

18.3.6 Performance Analysis of Loops

18.3.7 Compiler Optimizations

18.4 inspect: Inspect Live Objects

18.4.1 Example Module

18.4.2 Inspecting Modules

18.4.3 Inspecting Classes

18.4.4 Inspecting Instances

18.4.5 Documentation Strings

18.4.6 Retrieving Source

18.4.7 Method and Function Signatures

18.4.8 Class Hierarchies

18.4.9 Method Resolution Order

18.4.10 The Stack and Frames

18.4.11 Command-Line Interface

19.1 importlib: Python’s Import Mechanism

Chapter 19 Modules and Packages

19.1.1 Example Package

19.1.2 Module Types

19.1.3 Importing Modules

19.1.4 Loaders

19.2 pkgutil: Package Utilities

19.2.1 Package Import Paths

19.2.2 Development Versions of Packages

19.2.3 Managing Paths with PKG Files

19.2.4 Nested Packages

19.2.5 Package Data

19.3 zipimport: Load Python Code from ZIP Archives

19.3.1 Example

19.3.2 Finding a Module

19.3.3 Accessing Code

19.3.4 Source

19.3.5 Packages

19.3.6 Data

Appendix A Porting Notes

A.1 References

A.2 New Modules

A.3 Renamed Modules

A.4 Removed Modules

A.4.1 bsddb

A.4.2 commands

A.4.3 compiler

A.4.4 dircache

A.4.5 EasyDialogs

A.4.6 exceptions

A.4.7 htmllib

A.4.8 md5

A.4.9 mimetools, MimeWriter, mimify, multifile, and rfc822

A.4.10 popen2

A.4.11 posixfile

A.4.12 sets

A.4.13 sha

A.4.14 sre

A.4.15 statvfs

A.4.16 thread

A.4.17 user

A.5 Deprecated Modules

A.5.1 asyncore and asynchat

A.5.2 formatter

A.5.3 imp

A.5.4 optparse

A.6 Summary of Changes to Modules

A.6.1 abc

A.6.2 anydbm

A.6.3 argparse

A.6.4 array

A.6.5 atexit

A.6.6 base64

A.6.7 bz2

A.6.8 collections

A.6.9 comands

A.6.10 configparser

A.6.11 contextlib

A.6.12 csv

A.6.13 datetime

A.6.14 decimal

A.6.15 fractions

A.6.16 gc

A.6.17 gettext

A.6.18 glob

A.6.19 http.cookies

A.6.20 imaplib

A.6.21 inspect

A.6.22 itertools

A.6.23 json

A.6.24 locale

A.6.25 logging

A.6.26 mailbox

A.6.27 mmap

A.6.28 operator

A.6.29 os

A.6.30 os.path

A.6.31 pdb

A.6.32 pickle

A.6.33 pipes

A.6.34 platform

A.6.35 random

A.6.36 re

A.6.37 shelve

A.6.38 signal

A.6.39 socket

A.6.40 socketserver

A.6.41 string

A.6.42 struct

A.6.43 subprocess

A.6.44 sys

A.6.45 threading

A.6.46 time

A.6.47 unittest

A.6.48 UserDict, UserList, and UserString

A.6.49 uuid

A.6.50 whichdb

A.6.51 xml.etree.ElementTree

A.6.52 zipimport

Appendix B Outside of the Standard Library

B.1 Text

B.2 Algorithms

B.3 Dates and Times

B.4 Mathematics

B.5 Data Persistence and Exchange

B.6 Cryptography

B.7 Concurrency with Processes, Threads, and Coroutines

B.8 The Internet

B.9 Email

B.10 Application Building Blocks

B.11 Developer Tools

Index of Python Modules

Index

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